Metacognition: The importance of thinking about one’s thinking

Introduction  

Metacognition, often defined as “ thinking about thinking ” , encompasses an individual’s awareness of their cognitive processes and the ability to efficiently assess and control these processes to optimi s e learning ( Rhodes, 2019; Alias & Sulaiman , 2017 ) . In th e era of technology-enabled learning and information abundance, metacognitive strategies have become foundational for students at university seeking to navigate complex academic challenges. This article aims to explore the role of metacognition, and how it can be effectively harnessed to enhance learning experiences , improve learning outcomes and student performance . We will outline the key theoretical frameworks of metacognition and discuss practical strategies for developing metacognitive skills. By fostering metacognition, students are empowered to take control of their learning journey, promoting not only academic success but also lifelong learning and adaptability in a rapidly changing world.  

Metacognition: Key Frameworks  

Frameworks characterising metacognition have evolved over the years, with contributions from various researchers shaping our understanding of its key processes and components. Developmental psychologist, John Flavell, one of the pioneers in metacognition research, proposes two key components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences. Metacognitive knowledge entails an individual’s awareness about their cognitive capabilities and understanding the nature of the task at hand and identifying strategies to effectively manage resources. Flavell (1979) demonstrated that this knowledge is critical in influencing how individuals’ approach, process, and reflect on information. Metacognitive experiences are the conscious experiences of an individual before, during and after a cognitive process. This is where metacognitive knowledge is accessed and attained. According to Flavell (1979), metacognitive experiences are likely to take place in events that stimulate a lot of careful, highly conscious thinking. For instance, a student undertaking an exam, where their decisions and actions are consequential. During this metacognitive experience, the student accesses their sense of mastery and confidence of the content (metacognitive knowledge), with opportunities to add to it, delete it or revise it.     

Flavell’s framework of metacognition was followed by numerous others, often highlighting different mechanisms and processes associated with metacognition. Brown (1987) focused significantly on regulatory processes of metacognition, such as monitoring, evaluating, and revising one’s own cognitive processes. Schraw and Dennison (1994) expanded these ideas into a model that breaks down metacognition into two main components: knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. Nelson and Narens’ (1990) model of metacognitive regulation, also widely cited in the research literature, consists of two levels, object level (where ‘one’s thinking’ occurs, for example, translating text when you are reading) and meta level (where ‘thinking about thinking’ occurs, for example, thinking about how well you understood the piece of text that you have read). Within these two levels, processes of monitoring and control take place (Georghiades, 2004). For instance, monitoring is thinking about what you have read and how well you understood it. This determines whether you continue reading or read the text again, and perhaps use other resources to help your understanding. The actions that emerge from this are referred to as control processes, which contributes to the changes one makes in their cognitive processes and behaviours, based on feedback during the monitoring process.  

Zimmerman’s (2000) model of self-regulated also provides valuable insights into regulatory processes of metacognition. According to Zimmerman, self-regulated learners are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally active in their learning processes. Zimmerman’s model includes three phases: forethought, performance, and self-reflection, each with metacognitive elements. The forethought phase includes task analysis (goal setting and strategic planning) and self-motivational beliefs. This phase lays the groundwork for actions, focusing on setting precise learning goals and selecting appropriate strategies. The performance phase includes self-control processes and self-observation. This includes, activating the chosen strategies, maintaining focus, and tracking. Finally, the self-reflection phase includes self-judgement and self-evaluation. Students assess their performance again their set goals, and react emotionally to their outcomes, fuelling adaptations for future learning efforts. Zimmerman’s model emphasizes an iterative learning process, where students proactively plan, execute, and adjust their learning strategies based on self-evaluation and reflection.  

Why use metacognition?  

The theoretical frameworks of metacognition suggest that successful learners are aware of their cognitive processes and can regulate them effectively. Students who possess these skills are better prepared to manage their learning independently, an ability especially critical in higher education where autonomous or self-directed learning is heavily emphasised.   

Here’s a story about Megan, a determined student at university:  

Megan often found herself feeling overwhelmed, struggling to grasp complex concepts and retain information. Recognizing these challenges, Megan began by examining her learning process and becoming aware of her strengths and weaknesses. This self-reflection allowed her to identify areas of improvement and focus her efforts accordingly.     

Megan implemented various strategies, such as setting clear goals, breaking down assignments into manageable tasks, setting goals before each study session, and regularly evaluating her understanding of the material. She learned to ask herself questions that assisted her in identifying gaps in her knowledge and seeking further resources or clarification when necessary.    

Moreover, Megan recognized the importance of monitoring her own progress. She worked on self-assessment, continuously evaluating her performance and learning from her mistakes. This enabled her to adjust her study techniques, improving efficiency and effectiveness. As Megan progressed through her university years, her self-regulated learning skills and practices strengthened. She was able to plan, adapt, and reflect on her learning. Developing her self-regulated learning skills, empowered her to take control of her own educational and personal growth.  

Megan’s story highlights the importance and benefits of adopting and developing metacognitive skills at university in fostering independent learning and academic success. These benefits can be summarised as:  

• Metacognitive practices, such as self-regulated learning, as Megan has demonstrated, help learners to plan, monitor and evaluate their own progress positioning them as active agents of the learning process (Winne & Perry, 2000) .  
• Metacognition promotes critical and creative thinking for better problem solving and decision-making (Alias & Sulaiman, 2017). Through regular self-reflection and evaluation, Megan became more self-aware, which enabled her to identify knowledge gaps, her strengths, and weaknesses, and come up with methods and strategies to improve her comprehension and performance.
• Metacognitive skills and activities are suggested to be transferrable. This means, it can be applied to new learning tasks and contexts (Schuster et al., 2020). Throughout university, Megan was able to use and strengthen these skills through planning, self-reflecting and adapting accordingly.  

Beyond university, metacognition is also thought to be critical in many aspects of life, from health, relationships and to future careers. Understanding metacognition or practicing metacognitive skills can provide a framework for understanding the options for decision-making and problem-solving in life.  

Strategies for developing metacognition  

Research has indicated that metacognition involves skills that can be trained and developed, with the potential for substantial applications in improving tasks performance within and beyond learning and teaching settings (Rhodes, 2019). At university, learning online or hybrid modes requires students to practice metacognitive skills, to become self-regulated learners. This means having the ability to set goals, monitor their progress, manage their time, self-assess, and self-reflect on their learning. As such, supporting students developing these skills and practices should be a key focus for educational institutions (Llacuna & Mason, 2022). The following are a list of strategies and practices for supporting the development of students’ metacognitive skills (adapted from Center for Teaching and Learning at Columbia University ):  

• Enable student self-monitoring by providing students opportunities for self-reflection. For instance, asking a set of questions during class or within instructional materials, can help monitor their progress within different learning tasks or activities.   
• Explicitly teach metacognitive strategies by initiating discussions at the start of the semester on how to engage in meaningful reflection, demonstrating how this links to their success and self-awareness. These discussions can be revisited after a major assessment.  
• Build in time for metacognitive work within class activities. For instance, one-minute reflection paper at the end of the session can help students reflect on their grasp of key concepts and topics.  
• Scaffold metacognitive process by providing structures or templates that help students in identifying areas for improvement. Guide students in creating actionable plans.  
• Model metacognitive processes and practices by verbalising processes of thinking and problem-solving.  
• Use appropriate technology to support and promote self-regulated learning skills and practices by suggesting tools and providing resources that can help students set goals, plan their study, and monitor their progress. Tools within the learning management system (LMS) can also be used to help students check their knowledge. For e xample, using HTML5 Package (H5P) interactive content to develop knowledge checks )  

Self-regulated learning at Western Sydney University: Learn2Learn  

At Western Sydney University, Learn2Learn , a self-paced module was developed to support students in the development and enhancement of their self-regulated learning skills and practices. It was designed to help students in their day-to-day learning across different delivery modes. The module can also be disaggregated and used within the LMS to suit the context of the subject. The ‘Embed a lesson’ feature supports Academics and Instructors in using the module’s content at opportune times to guide students through academic challenges they may be presented with. By supporting both students and Instructors, the Learn2Learn module demonstrates Western Sydney University’s commitment to the promotion of student agency in the learning process to foster independence and lifelong learning.  

The research on metacognition highlights its importance in higher education, serving as a catalyst for personal growth, critical thinking, and lifelong learning. By fostering self-awareness and self-regulation, metacognition equips students with the tools to navigate academic challenges with confidence and adaptability. As they develop the ability to monitor their own learning processes, set effective goals, and employ appropriate strategies, students become active participants in their learning journey.  

References  

Alias, M., & Sulaiman, N. L. (2017). Development of metacognition in Higher Education. Metacognition and Successful Learning Strategies in Higher Education , 22–42. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-2218-8.ch002  

Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe, (Eds.) Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.  

Center for Teaching and Learning. (n.d.). Metacognition. Columbia University. https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/metacognition/  

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist , 34 (10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906  

Georghiades, P. (2004). From the general to the situated: Three decades of metacognition. International Journal of Science Education , 26 (3), 365–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069032000119401  

Llacuna, H., & Mason, G. (2022). Promoting self-regulated learning in higher education.  Pacific Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning , 4(1), 19-20. https://doi.org/10.24135/pjtel.v4i1.143  

Nelson, T. and Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. Psychology of Learning and Motivation , 26, 125–173.  

Rhodes, M. G. (2019). Metacognition. Teaching of Psychology , 46 (2), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628319834381  

Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19 (4), 460–475. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033  

Winne, P. H., & Perry, N. (2000). Chapter 16—Measuring Self-Regulated Learning. In Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 531–566). Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232472158_Measuring_Self-Regulated_Learning  

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation. Handbook of Self-Regulation , 13–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50031-7