What is it?
The modelling of expert processes and performance is a key component of authentic learning. Based on the work of Bandura (2005) and Zimmerman (2005), there are four stages in learning through modelling:
- The student watches an expert perform the model of the skill that is to be acquired.
- With assistance, the student attempts to model or adapt the behaviours associated with the performance.
- The student independently practises the behaviours in a structured setting.
- Self-regulation. The student is able to apply the behaviours in novel contexts.
Modelling can also be considered more broadly as a method to improve student capacity to perform cognitive tasks that are building blocks for progression through your unit. This modelling can be achieved through the development of worked examples (van Gog & Rummel, 2010).
Why use it?
Observational learning can be more effective than learning that is just based on practising (De Grez, Valcke, & Roozen, 2014) a task or skill. In the context of authentic learning, modelling of expert process and performance can be used to introduce students to patterns of thinking and behaviour that will prepare them to address ill-structured and complex problems – the key characteristics of real-world contexts. Modelling can also be viewed as one aspect or phase in providing scaffolding to students to guide students through processes or procedures (Chernikova et al. 2020).
Instructional support can be implemented in many different ways: Learners can obtain a theoretical introduction or some information on how to deal with materials in advance (knowledge convey) or they can be scaffolded in the learning environment. Learners can be guided through procedures step by step (e.g., worked examples or modeling); provided with observation scripts, checklists, or a set of rules or ways to deal with the case in question (e.g., prompts); assigned specific roles (with a prescribed course of action or goals); and asked to reflect on their own problem solving, set goals, and assess progress (e.g., inducing reflection phases).
(Chernikova et al. 2020)
Similarly, providing worked examples of problems can be effective for novice and advanced learners (Nievelstein, van Gog, van Dijck, & Boshuizen, 2013).
How do I do it?
There are numerous examples of modelling or observational learning and modelling can be used to promote social, metacognitive and psychomotor skills as well as being appropriate to model highly structured and ill-structured problems (van Gog & Rummel, 2010). Modelling can also be provided to your students using worked examples.
Practical example
In this example based on the development of legal reasoning skills (Nievelstein et al., 2013), novice and advanced law students were presented with a combination of the description of general steps that should be taken to address a legal issue, worked examples that demonstrate the required steps or no instruction at all. The results from this study show that worked examples were more effective than problem-solving activities and this was the case for both novice and advanced users. This study indicates that worked examples can be a powerful method for demonstrating how experts address problems as well as improving student performance.
| Synchronous face-to-face | Synchronous online | Asynchronous |
|
|
|
Suggested tools
- Consider using the WoS studio to provide video-based modelling of processes and procedures.
- Consider providing learning opportunities for students to discuss the modelling through discussion forums.
- Consider filming an expert in-situ. This will provide students with a sense of authentic context. This can be complemented with vUWS-based formative quizzes or discussion forums to help reinforce student learning.
Considerations
Modelling does not have to be complex. You can provide students with worked, authentic examples and use tutorial opportunities for students to collaborate on more complex authentic tasks. Observational learning can be delivered face-to-face or through the use of videos. It is important to complement observational material with opportunities for interaction and you may consider breaking down observational material into chunks to allow for student interaction as they progress through the material.
Consider providing students with an opportunity to create models and use these as material for peer review and feedback.
Consider providing two options – a sub-optimal model and one that reflects best practice. This provides students the opportunity to identify the features of both.
References
Bandura, A. (2005). The evolution of social cognitive theory. In K. Smith & M. Hitt (Series Ed.), Great minds in management (pp. 9–35). Oxford University Press.
Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2020). Simulation-Based Learning in Higher Education: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research , 90 (4), 499-541. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320933544 (Original work published 2020)
De Grez, L., Valcke, M., & Roozen, I. (2014). The differential impact of observational learning and practice-based learning on the development of oral presentation skills in higher education. Higher Education Research & Development , 33 (2), 256–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2013.832155
Nievelstein, F., van Gog, T., van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2013). The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Contemporary Educational Psychology , 38 (2), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004
van Gog, T., & Rummel, N. (2010). Example-Based Learning: Integrating Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Research Perspectives. Educational Psychology Review , 22 (2), 155–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9134-7
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Chapter 2—Attaining Self-Regulation: A Social Cognitive Perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 13–39). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
